Pierre Hadot: What Is Ancient Philosophy?
Aristotle's school, Lyceum, trained people only for the philosophical life. Aristotle distinguishes between the happiness man can find in political life, in active life, and philosophical happiness, which corresponds to theoria---a kind of life devoted entirely to the activity of the mind. Political and practical happiness is happiness only in a secondary way. Philosophical happiness is found in life according to the mind, which is situated in man's highest excellence and virtue. This virtue corresponds to the mind, the highest part of man, and is free of inconveniences brought by the active life. It is not subject to the intermittent nature of action, and does not produce fatigue. It brings marvelous pleasures, which are unmixed with pain or impurity and are stable and solid. These pleasures are greater for those who reach reality and truth than for those who are still searching for them. It ensures independence from others, insofar as we otherwise assured of independence with regard to material things. A person who devotes himself to the activity of the mind depends only on himself. Perhaps his intellectual activity will be of higher quality if he has collaborators; but the more a sage he is, the more he will be able to be alone. Life in accordance with the mind does not seek any result other than itself, and is therefore loved for itself. It is its own goal and its own reward.
The life of the mind also eliminates worry. By practicing the moral virtues, we find ourselves involved in a struggle against the passions and also mired in material cares. In order to act within the city, we must become involved in political struggles; in order to help others, we must have money; in order to practice courage, we must go to war. The philosophical life, by contrast, can be lived only in leisure and in detachment from material worries.
This form of life represents the highest form of human happiness. Yet it can also be said that such happiness is superhuman: "Then, man no longer lives qua man, but insofar as there is something divine about him." This paradox corresponds to Aristotle's paradoxical and enigmatic view of the mind and the intellect: the intellect is what is most essential in man, yet at the same time it is something divine which enters into him; what transcends man constitutes his true personality. It is as if man's true essence consisted in being above himself: "The mind is our self, insofar as it represents that which decides and which is best."
We must take into consideration the distance which separates man from the deity; and Aristotle admits that we can attain it only in infrequent moments. If the deity is perpetually in a state of joy comparable to that in which we sometimes find ourselves, that is admirable. If he is in a state of still greater joy, then that is still more marvelous. Thus, the summit of philosophical happiness and the of the activity of the mind, that is, the contemplation of the divine intellect is accessible to man only in rare moments, for the proprium of the human condition is that it cannot be continuously in actuality. This implies that for the rest of the time, the philosopher must be content with the inferior grade of happiness which consists in searching.
Aristotle uses the word "theoretical" to designate, on one hand, the mode of knowledge whose goal is knowledge for knowledge's sake, and not some goal outside itself; and on the other, the way of life which consists in devoting one's life to this mode of knowledge. The word is not opposed to "practical." "Theoretical" can be applied to a philosophy which is practiced, lived, and active, and which brings happiness. Aristotle hints that the mode of contemplative action is the deity and the universe, which exert no action directed toward the outside ut take themselves as the object of their action. It appears that the model of a knowledge which does not seek any gaol other than itself is the divine Intellect, which has no interest in anything else. So theoretical praxis consists in choosing no goal other than knowledge. It means wanting knowledge for its own sake, without pursuing any other particular, egoistic interest which would be alien to knowledge. This is an ethics of disinterestedness and of objectivity.
Kant: "To take an immediate interest in the beauties of nature...is always the sign of a good soul."
Sunday, November 29, 2009
Saturday, November 28, 2009
Plato's spiritual exercises
Pierre Hadot: What Is Ancient Philosophy?
Plato's writing: Seventh Letters, Timaeus, Phaedo, Symposium, Republic, Theatetus.
For Plato, the philosophical way of life requires a considerable effort, which must be renewed every day. It consists in setting more store by virtue than by pleasure, in renouncing the pleasures of senses, in observing a special diet, and in living every day in such of way as to become master of oneself as much as possible.
Preparation for sleep: If we wish to avoid bad dreams, we must prepare ourselves every evening by trying to awaken the rational part of the soul through inner discourses an research on elevated subjects.
Meditation: It will calm our desire and anger.
Exercise of how to maintain our calm in misfortune, without rebelling. We must tell ourselves that we do not know what is good and what is bad in such accidents; that it does no good to become upset; that no human matter is worth being considered very important; and that, as in a dice game, we must deal with things as they are, and act appropriately.
The practice of death: in Phaedo, Socrates declareds that a man who has spent his life in philosophy necessarily has the courage to die, since ophilosophy is nothing other than an exercise of death. Death is the separation of the soul and body, and the philosopher spends his time trying to detach his soul from his body. The body causes us no end of trouble, because of the passions which it engenders and the needs it imposes upon us. The practice is a divestment of passions in order to accede to the purity of th eintelligence.
From Phaedo, the "I" which must die transcends itself and becomes an "I" which is henceforth a stranger to death, since it has identified itself with the logos and with thought. "Corporeal individuality ceases to exist the moment it is externalized in the logos."
In Republic, the exercise of death appears as something like the soul's flight on high, or a look down upon reality from above: "Small-mindedness is what is most opposed to a soul which must always stretch itself toward the entire totality of the divine and the human." In embracing the whole of reality within one universal vision, the exercise allows us to defeat the fear of death.
This is way Plato describes him as an alien, lost in a world which is human, all too human; like Thales the sage, he runs the risk of falling down a well. He is ignorant of fights over magistracy, political debates, and parties with flute players. He does not know how to plead his case at court, or how to insult others, or how to flatter them. Even the most enormous estates seem insignificant to him, "since he is used to embracing the entire earth in his vision.
The sublimation of love: We learn only from people we love.
Whitehead: "Concepts are always dressed in emotions."
Plato's writing: Seventh Letters, Timaeus, Phaedo, Symposium, Republic, Theatetus.
For Plato, the philosophical way of life requires a considerable effort, which must be renewed every day. It consists in setting more store by virtue than by pleasure, in renouncing the pleasures of senses, in observing a special diet, and in living every day in such of way as to become master of oneself as much as possible.
Preparation for sleep: If we wish to avoid bad dreams, we must prepare ourselves every evening by trying to awaken the rational part of the soul through inner discourses an research on elevated subjects.
Meditation: It will calm our desire and anger.
Exercise of how to maintain our calm in misfortune, without rebelling. We must tell ourselves that we do not know what is good and what is bad in such accidents; that it does no good to become upset; that no human matter is worth being considered very important; and that, as in a dice game, we must deal with things as they are, and act appropriately.
The practice of death: in Phaedo, Socrates declareds that a man who has spent his life in philosophy necessarily has the courage to die, since ophilosophy is nothing other than an exercise of death. Death is the separation of the soul and body, and the philosopher spends his time trying to detach his soul from his body. The body causes us no end of trouble, because of the passions which it engenders and the needs it imposes upon us. The practice is a divestment of passions in order to accede to the purity of th eintelligence.
From Phaedo, the "I" which must die transcends itself and becomes an "I" which is henceforth a stranger to death, since it has identified itself with the logos and with thought. "Corporeal individuality ceases to exist the moment it is externalized in the logos."
In Republic, the exercise of death appears as something like the soul's flight on high, or a look down upon reality from above: "Small-mindedness is what is most opposed to a soul which must always stretch itself toward the entire totality of the divine and the human." In embracing the whole of reality within one universal vision, the exercise allows us to defeat the fear of death.
This is way Plato describes him as an alien, lost in a world which is human, all too human; like Thales the sage, he runs the risk of falling down a well. He is ignorant of fights over magistracy, political debates, and parties with flute players. He does not know how to plead his case at court, or how to insult others, or how to flatter them. Even the most enormous estates seem insignificant to him, "since he is used to embracing the entire earth in his vision.
The sublimation of love: We learn only from people we love.
Whitehead: "Concepts are always dressed in emotions."
Friday, November 27, 2009
Dead Poets Society
We have to constantly look at things in a different way.
Just when you're thinking that you have known something, you have to look at it in another way. You must to strive to find your own voice. Because the longer you wait to begin, the less likely you'll find it at all. Break out. Dare to try out and find a new ground.
Conformity: the difficulty to maintain your own beliefs in facing of others. We all have great needs for acceptance, but you must trust that your beliefs are your own.
Just when you're thinking that you have known something, you have to look at it in another way. You must to strive to find your own voice. Because the longer you wait to begin, the less likely you'll find it at all. Break out. Dare to try out and find a new ground.
Conformity: the difficulty to maintain your own beliefs in facing of others. We all have great needs for acceptance, but you must trust that your beliefs are your own.
The Pythagorean community
Pythagoreans: the full-time residents of the community.
Pythagoritst: people who live in the surrounding region but attended Pythagoras' lectures on a regular basis.
Pythagoreans were divided into two groups:
Disciples: people who had completed the full term of probation.
Auditors: the rest of the group.
Before acceptance as a resident, each applicant to the community was rigorously examined. Pythagoras first asked about their relation to their parents and family. Next he observed the tone of their speech and laughter, and inquired about their desires, their friendships, how they employed their leisure, and what were the causes of their joy and sadness. He observed their posture and the shape and motions of their body, regarding these as visible signs of the qualities of the soul.
After subjecting each candidate to such careful screening, those deemed acceptable were invited to join the community as Auditors for a period of three years. During this time, Pythagoras carefully observed their character and habits, evaluating their susceptibility to desire and passion, and how they were affected by conflict and disappointment. He tested their acquisitiveness and pride, and placed a high value on generosity, reticence and modesty.
After this survey of manners, he directed his attention to their memory and facility in learning. He examined their ability to follow what was said quickly and accurately, and then whether they were driven y pure motivation and love to master all the disciplines presented to them. He stressed the importance of open mindedness, and this he called culture.
After the third year, those who were found unfit in any detail were required to leave the community; those who remained advanced toward discipleship. Because Pythagoras considered mastery over one's tongue as the most difficult challenge, successful Auditors were required at this stage to observe strict silence for five years. All their possessions and property were given to the community and committed to trustees. Finally, after five years of silence, those who had won Pythagoras' approval were initiated as Disciples.
Pythagoras explained that the extraordinary disciplines he imposed on applicants were necessary to clear away the thickets of excess and greed that obscure the natural reasoning power of the soul. "Excess brings lust, intoxication and uncontrolled emotions, which drive men and women into the abyss, " he taught. "Greed brings envy, theft and exploitation. Theses thickets, which choke the soul, must be cleared out by systematic discipline, as if with fire and sword. Only when reason is liberated from such evils are we able to implant what is useful and good within the soul."
Life in the community followed a strict routine. Special regard was given to two times of day---the hour of waking and the hour of falling asleep. Auditors and Disciples began the day with solitary walks to quiet places in the around the retreat---to groves, streams, temples and other sacred sites.
Pythagoritst: people who live in the surrounding region but attended Pythagoras' lectures on a regular basis.
Pythagoreans were divided into two groups:
Disciples: people who had completed the full term of probation.
Auditors: the rest of the group.
Before acceptance as a resident, each applicant to the community was rigorously examined. Pythagoras first asked about their relation to their parents and family. Next he observed the tone of their speech and laughter, and inquired about their desires, their friendships, how they employed their leisure, and what were the causes of their joy and sadness. He observed their posture and the shape and motions of their body, regarding these as visible signs of the qualities of the soul.
After subjecting each candidate to such careful screening, those deemed acceptable were invited to join the community as Auditors for a period of three years. During this time, Pythagoras carefully observed their character and habits, evaluating their susceptibility to desire and passion, and how they were affected by conflict and disappointment. He tested their acquisitiveness and pride, and placed a high value on generosity, reticence and modesty.
After this survey of manners, he directed his attention to their memory and facility in learning. He examined their ability to follow what was said quickly and accurately, and then whether they were driven y pure motivation and love to master all the disciplines presented to them. He stressed the importance of open mindedness, and this he called culture.
After the third year, those who were found unfit in any detail were required to leave the community; those who remained advanced toward discipleship. Because Pythagoras considered mastery over one's tongue as the most difficult challenge, successful Auditors were required at this stage to observe strict silence for five years. All their possessions and property were given to the community and committed to trustees. Finally, after five years of silence, those who had won Pythagoras' approval were initiated as Disciples.
Pythagoras explained that the extraordinary disciplines he imposed on applicants were necessary to clear away the thickets of excess and greed that obscure the natural reasoning power of the soul. "Excess brings lust, intoxication and uncontrolled emotions, which drive men and women into the abyss, " he taught. "Greed brings envy, theft and exploitation. Theses thickets, which choke the soul, must be cleared out by systematic discipline, as if with fire and sword. Only when reason is liberated from such evils are we able to implant what is useful and good within the soul."
Life in the community followed a strict routine. Special regard was given to two times of day---the hour of waking and the hour of falling asleep. Auditors and Disciples began the day with solitary walks to quiet places in the around the retreat---to groves, streams, temples and other sacred sites.
Pythagoras, an introduction
And the end of all our exploring will be to arrive where we started,
And know the place for the first time.
--T.S. Eliot, Ash Wednesday
Pythagoras: 570-c. 495 BC. Buddha is his contemporary.
These three men wrote about Pythagoras:
Porphyry (233-305 C.E.), a student of Plotinus
Iamblichus (250-325 C.E.): On the Pythagorean Life
Diogenes Laertius
Some of Plato's dialogues directly reflect Pythagorean thought. Aristotle wrote specifically about it.
And know the place for the first time.
--T.S. Eliot, Ash Wednesday
Pythagoras: 570-c. 495 BC. Buddha is his contemporary.
These three men wrote about Pythagoras:
Porphyry (233-305 C.E.), a student of Plotinus
Iamblichus (250-325 C.E.): On the Pythagorean Life
Diogenes Laertius
Some of Plato's dialogues directly reflect Pythagorean thought. Aristotle wrote specifically about it.
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